Shopping on line can be easy, simple and save you lots of money. It can also take a lot of your time, frustrate you, and result in unwanted purchases. Now the same can be said for regular high street shopping, but with the vast opportunity presented by the Internet it will pay you to spend a few minutes reading this and understanding how to better optimize your Authority shopping experience:
1. Compare - without doubt the biggest advantage that the Authority offers shoppers today is the ability to compare thousands of Authority at a time. This is a great thing, but not necessarily all the time! Too much can be daunting at times so take advantage of the great comparison sites and where possible let them do the hard work for you.
2. Research - if it has been said it will be on the internet. Ignorance is no longer a justifiable reason for buying the wrong thing. Take the time to research in detail everything that you could possible want to know about
3. Testimonials - don't know anybody that has bought a Authority? Wrong! If the Authority is good the internet will let you know. Use the Internet as a friend and get testimonials before you buy.
4. Questions - Got a question about Authority then search the Forums, FAQ's, Blogs etc. Don't be afraid to ask .....
5. Reputation - Never heard of the company selling Authority? Don't worry, no reason why you should know every company in the world, but you know someone that does! Use the internet to find out what people are saying about Authority and build up a picture of their reputation for sales, returns, customer service, delivery etc.
6. Returns - still worried that even after all of the above your Authority wont be what you want? Check out the returns policy. There is so much competition now that someone, somewhere is bound to offer the terms that you are comfortable with.
7. Feedback - happy with your Authority then let people know, after all you are depending on others people input in your buying decision, so why not give a little back.
8. Security - check for the yellow padlock on the Authority site before you buy, and the s after http:/ /i.e. https:// = a secure site
9. Contact - got a question about Authority, or want to leave a comment then check out the sites contact page. Reputable companies have them and respond.
10. Payment - ready to pay for your Authority, then use your credit card or PayPal! Be aware of companies that don't accept them, there may be genuine reasons but given the huge amount of choice you have when buying online there is no reason at all not to buy via credit card or PayPal.
In politics,
authority (Latin language
auctoritas, used in
Roman law as opposed to
potestas and
imperium) is often used interchangeably with the term "Power (sociology)". However, their meanings differ: while "power" refers to the ability to achieve certain ends, "authority" refers to the
legitimacy, justification and right to exercise that power. For example, whilst a Crowd has the power to punish a criminal, such as through lynching, only the
courts have the authority to order capital punishment.
Since the emergence of
social sciences, authority has been a subject of research in a variety of empirical settings; the family (parental authority), small groups (informal authority of leadership), intermediate organizations such as schools, churches, armies, industries and bureaucracies (organizational and bureaucratic authority) and society-wide or inclusive organizations ranging from the most primitive tribal society to the modern nation-state and intermediate organization (political authority).
The jurisdiction of political authority, the location of sovereignty, the balancing of freedom and authority, the requirements of political obligations have been core questions for political philosophers from Plato and
Aristotle to the present.
Religious perceptions of authority
Most
religions around the world, whether Hinduism,
Islam, or
Christianity have always considered
God as the supreme authority. All the religious scriptures have considered God to have authority and wisdom, which is infinitely superior than any human being. The source or reason behind this authority usually involves tremendous power and compassion along with primacy in the physical and spiritual realms. That which is divine is usually thought of as the creator and therefore superior to ordinary creatures.
Divinity, as presented in the religious scriptures, makes claim to the final authority for all
truth and
reality, and provides rules and directions for the use of
creation. The question of authority in such a system is "what does God want from me and how do I know this?" The source for answers to these types of questions in a divine authority consideration is variable in the human experience.
Absolutism is often the result of receipt of what has been considered a divinely authored experience. The common experience of man is a religious history. Methods of understanding the connection to divinity are multiple, all seem to require some measure of faith in divinity and
contemplation of perhaps multiple methods of communication.
For example, in the modern era; the act of observing the Eucharist or the Lord's supper comes from a combination of direct divine command, approved apostolic example recorded in scripture, and necessary inference. Jesus directly states to his disciples that they are to partake of this examination (found in the Gospels and rehearsed in the First Epistle to the Corinthians); there is an example of an apostle and others participating in this act of worship and obedience in the Book of Acts, where the day of the observance is mentioned; as with all Bible references, the reader must infer or understand how the direction from God to be applicable to today.
Weber on authority
The word
authority derives from the
Latin language word "
auctoritas", used in Roman law as opposed to
potestas. According to Giorgio Agamben (2005), "
auctoritas has nothing to do with
magistrates or the
people's
potestas or
imperium. The Senator… is not a magistrate".
In Max Weber
sociology,
authority comprises a particular type of power (sociology). The dominant usage comes from
Functionalism (sociology), defining authority as
power which is recognized as legitimate and justified by both the powerful and the powerless. Weber divided authority into three types:
The first type discussed by Weber is the
Traditional authority which according to him derives from long-established customs, habits and social structures. When power passes from one generation to another then it is known as traditional authority. The right of hereditary monarchs to rule furnishes an obvious example. There are several examples in this regard. The Tudors in England, and the ruling families of Mewar in
Rajasthan (India) are some examples of traditional authority.
The second type of authority is
Rational-legal authority. It is that form of authority which depends for its legitimacy (political science) on formal rules and established laws of the state, which are usually written down, and are often very complex. The power of the rational legal authority is mentioned in the constitution. Modern societies depend on legal-rational authority. Government officials are the best example of this form of authority which is prevalent all over the world.
The third form of authority is
Charismatic authority. Here, the charisma of the individual or the leader plays an important role. Charismatic authority is that authority which is derived from "the gift of grace," or, when the leader claims that his authority is derived from a "higher power" (e.g. God or natural law or rights) or "inspiration" that is superior to both the validity of traditional and rational-legal authority, and followers accept this and are willing to follow this higher or inspired authority in the place of the authority that they have hitherto been following. Some of the most prominent examples of charismatic authority can be politicians or leaders who come from a movie or entertainment background. These people become successful because they use their grace and charm to get more votes during elections. Examples in this regard can be NT Rama Rao, a matinee idol who went on to become one of the most powerful Chief Ministers of
Andhra Pradesh.History has witnessed several
social movements or
revolution against a system of traditional or legal-rational authority, which are usually started by Charismatic authority.What distinguishes authority from
coercion,
force, and power on the one hand and leadership,
persuasion and influence on the other hand is legitimacy. Superiors feel that they have a right to issue commands; subordinates perceive an obligation to obey. Social scientists agree that authority is but one of several resources available to incumbents in formal positions. For example, a Head of State is dependent upon a similar nesting of authority. His legitimacy must be acknowledged not just by citizens but by those who control other valued resources: his immediate staff, his cabinet, military leaders and in the long run administration and political apparatus of the entire society.
Authority and the state
The jurisdiction of political authority is widely discussed in the U.S.; Even the current Iraq war is in question. Because the Founders intended a system of checks and balances which ideally limits concentration of power in any one of the three branches, there is an ongoing discussion in U.S. politics regarding the legitimate extent of governmental authority in general. While there has been an ongoing trend toward consolidation of power in the federal government, and in the executive branch in particular, many critics argue that the Founders intended a system which afforded the populace with as much freedom as reasonable, and that government should limit its authority accordingly.
Every state has a number of institutions which exercise authority based on longstanding practices. In India, the British created the institution of the Civil Service, which is still going strong even after 150 years. The Armed Forces of India is another institution which is subordinate to the government but is a very old and prominent institution. Apart from this, every state sets up agencies which are competent in dealing with one particular matter. All this is set up within its charter. One example can be that of a port authority like the port of London authority. They are usually created by special legislation and are run by a board of directors. Several agencies and institutions are also created along the same lines and they exercise autonomy in certain matters. They are also usually required to be self-supporting through property taxes or other forms of collection or fees for services.
The use of authority by contemporary social scientists is not dispute free. According to La swell and Kaplan, authority is formal power. But Friedrich rejected their definition and defined authority as the quality of a communication which is capable of reasoned elaboration. La swell and Kaplan believed that power is a form of influence whereas Friedrich maintained that influence is a kind of power, indirect and unstructured. According to him, it seems of unlimited value to pursue a definition of authority as a special case of power or influence.Social Scientists are by no means agreed on how the concept should be used. According to Michaels, in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, authority is the capacity, innate or acquired for exercising ascendancy over a group. But Kiersten's argues that authority is not a capacity, it is a relationship. It is sanctioned power, institutionalized power.
See Special-purpose district and Public Authority.
See also
References
- Giorgio Agamben, State of Exception (2005) and Homo sacer
- Hannah Arendt, Between Past and Future (New York, Viking, 1961) "The Concept of Authority"
- Józef Maria Bocheński, Was ist Autorität? (1974)
- Karl R. Popper, On the Sources of Knowledge and of Ignorance (1960)
- Max Weber
- Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
External links
- Authority: senses, synonyms and related words (Titiland dictionary)
- Qualitionary - Legal Definitions - Authority
- Authority - article by Peter Morville
In
politics,
authority (Latin language
auctoritas, used in
Roman law as opposed to
potestas and
imperium) is often used interchangeably with the term "Power (sociology)". However, their meanings differ: while "power" refers to the ability to achieve certain ends, "authority" refers to the
legitimacy, justification and right to exercise that power. For example, whilst a
Crowd has the power to punish a criminal, such as through
lynching, only the courts have the authority to order capital punishment.
Since the emergence of social sciences, authority has been a subject of research in a variety of empirical settings; the family (parental authority), small groups (informal authority of leadership), intermediate organizations such as schools, churches, armies, industries and bureaucracies (organizational and bureaucratic authority) and society-wide or inclusive organizations ranging from the most primitive tribal society to the modern nation-state and intermediate organization (political authority).
The jurisdiction of political authority, the location of sovereignty, the balancing of freedom and authority, the requirements of political obligations have been core questions for political philosophers from
Plato and
Aristotle to the present.
Religious perceptions of authority
Most religions around the world, whether Hinduism, Islam, or
Christianity have always considered God as the supreme authority. All the religious scriptures have considered God to have authority and wisdom, which is infinitely superior than any human being. The source or reason behind this authority usually involves tremendous power and compassion along with primacy in the physical and spiritual realms. That which is divine is usually thought of as the creator and therefore superior to ordinary creatures.
Divinity, as presented in the religious scriptures, makes claim to the final authority for all truth and reality, and provides rules and directions for the use of creation. The question of authority in such a system is "what does God want from me and how do I know this?" The source for answers to these types of questions in a divine authority consideration is variable in the human experience. Absolutism is often the result of receipt of what has been considered a divinely authored experience. The common experience of man is a religious history. Methods of understanding the connection to divinity are multiple, all seem to require some measure of faith in divinity and contemplation of perhaps multiple methods of communication.
For example, in the modern era; the act of observing the Eucharist or the Lord's supper comes from a combination of direct divine command, approved apostolic example recorded in scripture, and necessary inference.
Jesus directly states to his disciples that they are to partake of this examination (found in the Gospels and rehearsed in the First Epistle to the Corinthians); there is an example of an apostle and others participating in this act of worship and obedience in the
Book of Acts, where the day of the observance is mentioned; as with all
Bible references, the reader must infer or understand how the direction from God to be applicable to today.
Weber on authority
The word
authority derives from the Latin language word "
auctoritas", used in
Roman law as opposed to potestas. According to
Giorgio Agamben (2005), "
auctoritas has nothing to do with
magistrates or the people's
potestas or
imperium. The
Senator… is not a magistrate".
In Max Weber
sociology,
authority comprises a particular type of power (sociology). The dominant usage comes from Functionalism (sociology), defining authority as
power which is recognized as legitimate and justified by both the powerful and the powerless. Weber divided authority into three types:
The first type discussed by Weber is the
Traditional authority which according to him derives from long-established customs, habits and social structures. When power passes from one generation to another then it is known as traditional authority. The right of hereditary monarchs to rule furnishes an obvious example. There are several examples in this regard. The
Tudors in England, and the ruling families of Mewar in Rajasthan (India) are some examples of traditional authority.
The second type of authority is
Rational-legal authority. It is that form of authority which depends for its
legitimacy (political science) on formal rules and established laws of the state, which are usually written down, and are often very complex. The power of the rational legal authority is mentioned in the constitution. Modern societies depend on legal-rational authority. Government officials are the best example of this form of authority which is prevalent all over the world.
The third form of authority is
Charismatic authority. Here, the charisma of the individual or the leader plays an important role. Charismatic authority is that authority which is derived from "the gift of grace," or, when the leader claims that his authority is derived from a "higher power" (e.g. God or natural law or rights) or "inspiration" that is superior to both the validity of traditional and rational-legal authority, and followers accept this and are willing to follow this higher or inspired authority in the place of the authority that they have hitherto been following. Some of the most prominent examples of charismatic authority can be politicians or leaders who come from a movie or entertainment background. These people become successful because they use their grace and charm to get more votes during elections. Examples in this regard can be NT Rama Rao, a matinee idol who went on to become one of the most powerful Chief Ministers of
Andhra Pradesh.History has witnessed several social movements or revolution against a system of traditional or legal-rational authority, which are usually started by Charismatic authority.What distinguishes authority from
coercion,
force, and power on the one hand and leadership,
persuasion and
influence on the other hand is legitimacy. Superiors feel that they have a right to issue commands; subordinates perceive an obligation to obey. Social scientists agree that authority is but one of several resources available to incumbents in formal positions. For example, a Head of State is dependent upon a similar nesting of authority. His legitimacy must be acknowledged not just by citizens but by those who control other valued resources: his immediate staff, his cabinet, military leaders and in the long run administration and political apparatus of the entire society.
Authority and the state
The jurisdiction of political authority is widely discussed in the U.S.; Even the current Iraq war is in question. Because the Founders intended a system of checks and balances which ideally limits concentration of power in any one of the three branches, there is an ongoing discussion in U.S. politics regarding the legitimate extent of governmental authority in general. While there has been an ongoing trend toward consolidation of power in the federal government, and in the executive branch in particular, many critics argue that the Founders intended a system which afforded the populace with as much freedom as reasonable, and that government should limit its authority accordingly.
Every state has a number of institutions which exercise authority based on longstanding practices. In India, the British created the institution of the Civil Service, which is still going strong even after 150 years. The Armed Forces of India is another institution which is subordinate to the government but is a very old and prominent institution. Apart from this, every state sets up agencies which are competent in dealing with one particular matter. All this is set up within its charter. One example can be that of a
port authority like the port of London authority. They are usually created by special legislation and are run by a board of directors. Several agencies and institutions are also created along the same lines and they exercise autonomy in certain matters. They are also usually required to be self-supporting through property taxes or other forms of collection or fees for services.
The use of authority by contemporary social scientists is not dispute free. According to La swell and Kaplan, authority is formal power. But Friedrich rejected their definition and defined authority as the quality of a communication which is capable of reasoned elaboration. La swell and Kaplan believed that power is a form of influence whereas Friedrich maintained that influence is a kind of power, indirect and unstructured. According to him, it seems of unlimited value to pursue a definition of authority as a special case of power or influence.Social Scientists are by no means agreed on how the concept should be used. According to Michaels, in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, authority is the capacity, innate or acquired for exercising ascendancy over a group. But Kiersten's argues that authority is not a capacity, it is a relationship. It is sanctioned power, institutionalized power.
See Special-purpose district and Public Authority.
See also
References
- Giorgio Agamben, State of Exception (2005) and Homo sacer
- Hannah Arendt, Between Past and Future (New York, Viking, 1961) "The Concept of Authority"
- Józef Maria Bocheński, Was ist Autorität? (1974)
- Karl R. Popper, On the Sources of Knowledge and of Ignorance (1960)
- Max Weber
- Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
External links
- Authority: senses, synonyms and related words (Titiland dictionary)
- Qualitionary - Legal Definitions - Authority
- Authority - article by Peter Morville
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